Phenolic compounds present in Yerba Mate potentially improve human health: a critical review
Phenolic compounds present in Yerba Mate
potentially improve human health: a critical review
The content on this page comes from National Library of Medicine, and has been translated into Polish.
Link to source – https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9516501/
Abstract
Yerba Mate (YM) is a food product derived from Ilex paraguariensis, whose components obtained from its extract, mainly the phenolic fraction, have been linked to numerous health benefits such as cardiovascular protection, body weight reduction, glucose control and gene modulation. However, evidence linking the consumption of phenolic compounds (PC) to human health is still limited and often controversial. Several studies have shown that key PC elements are poorly absorbed by humans and occur mainly as conjugates, which may not be bioactive but may play a key role in interacting with gut microflora (GM). Since the gut is the largest organ in the human body inhabited by microorganisms, GM is considered a “microbial organ,” acting as a second genome to modulate the host’s health phenotype. For this reason, research on gut microflora has gained significant interest in recent years. Its impact on the development of nutrition-related diseases must motivate broader research into the interactions between YM’s PC and GM regarding the production of metabolites that may affect human health. This review aimed to gather and evaluate available information on how PC from YM may affect host metabolism, the immune system and GM.
Additional information
The online version contains additional materials available at 10.1007/s11130-022-01008-8.
Keywords: tea, polyphenols, antioxidants, gut, stimulantsGo to:
Introduction
The aging of the world’s population places emphasis on the development of healthcare policies and research methodologies to improve the relationship between nutrition and human health. Researchers are currently focusing on bioactive compounds (BAC) of natural origin, which are secondary metabolites derived from seeds, food, and metabolic products formed through fermentation [ 1 ]. Several factors, including the food matrix, particle size, environmental factors and interaction with gastrointestinal material, can inhibit the bioavailability and absorption of BAC in host cell systems and target sites. As a result, the isolation of such natural BACs can result in promising multifunctional extracts that can be used in food applications to support health-promoting effects in host cell systems [ 2 ].
For example, the most common plant-derived BAC from food are phenolic compounds (PC). The numerous health benefits associated with them have led to increased interest in and demand for phenol-rich foods, referred to as a preventive diet. Moreover, due to their antioxidant properties and mechanisms such as modulation of enzymatic activity, cell signaling and gene expression, foods rich in phenolic compounds have been linked to the prevention of several chronic diseases [ 3 ].
Nevertheless, the same emerging interest has been observed in yerba mate (YM) as a food product derived from Ilex paraguariensis A. St. Hil. (mate), whose components obtained from the extract, mainly the phenolic fraction, have been linked to numerous health benefits. In Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina, it is typically consumed as a tea-like beverage [ 4 ].
It is estimated that among the countries with the highest consumption of YM, Uruguay has the highest per capita intake (8–10 kg/inhabitant/year); Consumption in Argentina is around 6.5 kg/person/year, and in southern Brazil 3-5 kg/person/year [ 5 ]. Nowadays, YM products are also consumed in various countries, including Germany, Syria and the United States, for the production of energy drinks and teas. Recently, consumption of YM products has increased in other countries such as Italy, France, Spain, Japan, Australia, Russia and Korea, as their flavour and stimulating properties are highly appealing [ 6 ]. Moreover, the use of mate has already gone beyond the tradition of infusions, starting to be used in the production of cosmetics and in the pharmaceutical industry [7 ].
This plant is a rich source of several bioactive chemical substances that apparently affect health in a synergistic or complementary way. Besides that, it seems clear that several benefits may not be related solely to a specific nutrient, but rather to the interaction between them, the human body and GM [ 8 ]. The interaction between GM and PC has been extensively discussed in numerous studies using animal models or in vitro colon models. Although findings reveal that dietary PC increases the number of beneficial bacteria and antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria in GM, the main components of PC are poorly absorbed by animals and are mostly present as inactive conjugates once in the bloodstream.9 ].
Therefore, in order to benefit from the nutritional effects of BAC, it is necessary to investigate improvements in the absorption rate of these components, while at the same time gaining a deeper understanding of potential food sources rich in PC, so that we can safely introduce them into our diet. Modulation of GM through dietary changes has proven to be key to improving the absorption of PC by animals. Several aspects present in GM modulation, such as dietary habits, seem to be particularly important in determining its characteristics. Long-term diet may not only have a decisive impact on human GM, but even small changes in diet can affect the species composition [ 10 ].]. For example, it has been reported that diets rich in PC alter the nature of GM, which in turn can metabolise phenols into bioactive compounds, improving their regulatory bioavailability [ 11 ].
Despite the fact that several studies have already been published showing interactions between GM and PC, there is almost no research on the effect of YM and its PC on the human GM. This is certainly a significant topic that should be further explored, as YM becomes a potential source of PC, even compared to most beverages and food products already studied [ 12 ].
For this reason, in order to gain a better understanding of the effect of PC from YM on gut microbiota (GM) and human health, this review gathered and evaluated relevant articles selected from the Science Direct, Scopus, Web of Sciences, PubMed, Scielo and Google Scholar databases, resulting in the selection of a total of 74 publications, taking into account their novelty and impact within the scope of this review.
Overview of the Health Benefits of Yerba Mate
Over the past two decades, clinical studies have investigated the use of YM in the prevention and treatment of various conditions [ 13 ]. Figure S1 in the supplementary material shows the processing of YM products and details of the production processes in different countries.
Several authors have linked YM to a wide range of health benefits, including antioxidant capabilities [ 8 , 14 ], vasodilatory functions [ 15 ], gene modulation and defence against DNA damage [ 16 ], hypoglycaemic effects [ 17 ], anti-obesity and weight loss properties [ 13 , 18 ], cardioprotective effects [ 19 ], improvement of cholesterol levels [ 20 ] and thermogenic effects [ 21 ].
Heck and Mejia [ 4 ] described that YM extracts are particularly rich in CGA (an ester formed from quinic acid, QA, and caffeic acid, CA). The hydrolysis products, QA and CA, are important chemicals of great significance and have high commercial value. For example, CA has demonstrated antioxidant capacity, with several mechanisms involving metal ion chelation, inhibitory action on certain specific enzymes involved in free radical generation, and free radical scavenging [ 22 ].
In vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated a broad spectrum of biological activity of mono- and di-caffeoylquinic acids, also found in YM extracts. Caffeoylquinic acid derivatives show antioxidant capacity and anti-inflammatory action [ 23 ], apoptosis-mediated cytotoxicity and inhibitory action on α-glucosidase [ 24 ], hypoglycaemic properties [ 25 ], anti-obesity effects and improvement of lipid metabolism [ 26 ]. Table S1 in the supplementary material presents a summary of studies suggesting some beneficial health effects of YM.
Various chemical compounds responsible for the health benefits of YM have already been identified, such as organic acids, minerals, enzymes, vitamins, amino acids, xanthines, saponins, lignin, lutein, cellulose, and especially PC [ 27 ]. For example, methylxanthines, the main stimulant compounds present in YM, have several biological properties, including but not limited to peripheral vasoconstriction, stimulation of the central nervous system and heart muscle, smooth muscle relaxation, neuroprotective, hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, diuretic and cardioprotective effects. benefits [ 28 ].
Some studies have also linked the impact of YM’s health benefits to its antioxidant capacity and the recent global health epidemic. It is generally already known that the antioxidant capacity of food products is related to the neutralization of free radicals by PC, although their potential in the human body is still debatable [ 29 ]. However, the main antioxidant effect in YM seems to result primarily from the PC in the extract, electron delocalization, and the formation of intramolecular hydrogen bonds [ 4 , 19 ].
De Lima et al. [ 8 ] studied the ability of YM to protect the rat brain from chemically induced reactive oxygen species (ROS), glutathione imbalance, mitochondrial dysfunction and lipid peroxidation. YM prevented glutathione depletion and mitochondrial dysfunction, and both benefits were related to its ability to reduce ROS formation. Their results also suggest that the preventive properties of YM may result from the coordinated action of multiple components of the extract, rather than just the phenolic fraction.
Augusti et al. [ 30 ] recently published a review on the use of dietary bioactive substances, such as PC, as a potential supplement to reduce COVID-19 symptoms. It was hypothesized that the synthesis of postbiotics derived from PC increases the host’s antioxidant and immune response against SARS-CoV-2 infection, along with GM remodeling.
Phenolic Compounds in Yerba Mate
In YM leaves, the PC fraction accounts for 7–10% of the dry mass. Its main PC fraction consists of hydroxycinnamates, a family of esters formed mainly by QA and a multitude of different hydroxycinnamic acids, such as ferulic acid, p -coumaric acid and CA, which account for up to 95% of the phenolic content. The remaining 5% of the PC fraction consists of flavonols [ 31 ]. Among the flavonoids found in Yerba Mate are rutin, quercetin 3-rhamnoside and 3-glucoside, kaempferol 3-rhamnoside and 3-glucoside, and luteolin diglycoside [ 5 ].
CA is considered an important biosynthetic precursor representing the main hydroxycinnamic moiety, forming mono- and dicaffeoylquinic acid isomers and accounting for more than 90% of the total PC, with 5-caffeoylquinic acid being the main hydroxycinnamate in YM [ 15 , 31 ].
In detailed studies, Mateos et al. [ 32 ] identified 58 PCs in YM, such as four isomers of caffeoyl-2,7-anhydro-3-deoxy-2-octulopyranosonic acid, two isomers of trimethoxycinnamoyl-shikimic acid, di- and tri-methoxycinnamoylquinic acids, and 4-sinapoylquinic acid. In addition, 2-methylxanthines and 46 PCs were also identified. As with the ratio mentioned above, in their study hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives and flavonols accounted for 90 and 10% of YM’s PCs, respectively. Along with rutin (7.1–7.8%), 5-caffeoylquinic acids (21.1–22.4%), 4-caffeoylquinic acids (12.6–14.2%), 3-caffeoylquinic acids (26.8–28.8%) and 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acids (9.5–11.3%) were the most abundant phenols, with caffeine being the main methylxanthine (90%) [ 33 ].
These phenolic compounds can also be obtained from many plant sources, although in different compositions and amounts compared to those found in YM.
In particular, Meinhart et al. [ 12 ] analysed the presence of CGA in 89 plant infusions. They found these compounds in 93% of the infusions, however YM showed the highest CGA content (52.6 mg per 100 ml), making it an important source of this nutrient compared to other beverages and food products.
Similarly, according to Duarte and Farah [ 34 ], 100 ml of chimarrão contains twice as much 3,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 15 times more 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid and six times more 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid than the same volume of coffee. The values of 5-caffeoylquinic acid in 100 ml of chimarrão are on average 100, 60 and 20 times higher than in the same amount of white, green and black tea respectively [ 35 ]. Similar results were obtained for tererê extract, whose amounts were respectively 300, 100 and 50 times greater than infusions of white, green and black tea respectively [ 35 ].
In addition, YM-based beverages produced 120 times more 5-caffeoylquinic acid than mountain tea and 15 times more than chamomile tea, when aqueous extracts of YM and Mediterranean herbs were compared [ 36 ]. Infusions commonly consumed in South America, such as those prepared from macela leaves ( Achyrocline satureioides ) and carqueja ( Bacharis trimera ), showed a concentration of dicaffeoylquinic acid isomers 100 times lower than in chimarrão and tererê extracts [ 35 ]. Therefore, chimarrão and tererê are great alternative sources of CGA.
Interaction between PC and GM
The human body provides a nutrient-rich environment for gut bacteria, and the microbiota in turn performs essential functions that humans cannot carry out on their own, such as producing valuable nutrients, modulating bile acid metabolism, maintaining the intestinal cell barrier and regulating the immune system. The balance of gut bacteria has been linked to stronger immunity, the prevention of autoimmune disorders and immune-related inflammation, and the preservation of intestinal epithelial integrity (which prevents pathogens and immune-triggering compounds from entering the bloodstream ) [ 37-39 ] . Polyphenols may indirectly regulate these functions by modulating the composition and activity of this microflora [ 38]. Furthermore, certain polyphenols are involved in the immune system, mainly in connection with immunoglobulin A [ 40 ].
It also plays an important role in breaking down the original complex PC into phenolic metabolites, which are absorbed in the small intestine region [ 41 ].
In turn, the bioavailability and bioactive influence of PC and its metabolites appear to affect the composition of the GM. For example, dietary PC is able to increase the number of beneficial bacteria and antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria, although most studies have been carried out on animal models or in vitro colon models [ 42 ]. In fact, there is also a strong link between PC activity modifying the GM and, consequently, its effect on the Bacteroides/Firmicutes balance. Several studies have shown the importance of this ratio, as lower values indicate a lower rate of insulin resistance and obesity [ 39 ].]. This ratio changes throughout life. It is lower in the first years of life (0.4), increases in adulthood (10.9), and decreases in old age (0.6) [ 43 ].
Phenolic compounds are poorly absorbed by the stomach and small intestine, as the small intestine absorbs only 5 to 10% of total phenol intake [ 38 , 39 , 44 – 46 ]. This low absorption results from the complex molecular structure and polymerisation of polyphenols, while free aglycones can be effectively absorbed [ 44 , 46 ]. The unabsorbed polyphenols are then transported to the large intestine, where they are metabolised and biotransformed by the gut microbiota [ 38 , 44 , 45 , 47]. Enzymes from the gut microbiota break down polyphenols into bioactive phenolic metabolites, which can regulate metabolic functions and the composition of the gut microbiota [ 38-40 , 44 ] . Polyphenols are metabolised through dihydroxylation, glucosidase, esterase, demethylation and decarboxylation, resulting in simpler phenolic structures via cleavage, hydrolysis and reduction reactions [ 37 , 46 , 48 ]. Some of these resulting metabolites have higher bioactivity and bioavailability than their precursors, such as simple phenolic acids and lactones [ 44-46 , 49]. Thus, the interaction between polyphenols and the gut microbiota promotes the production of active phenolic metabolites, which in turn results in modulation of the gut microbiota composition [ 38 , 50 ]. Phenolic metabolites cause a shift in the gut microbiota population, usually favouring the growth of beneficial gut microbiota over pathogenic ones [ 39 , 47 ]. For this reason, phenolic compounds act as prebiotics [ 38 , 40 , 44 , 47 ]. For example, caffeic and ferulic acids act selectively, reducing the growth rate of pathogens without disrupting beneficial microorganisms [ 39 , 44]. Furthermore, caffeic and chlorogenic acids can reduce the firmicutes-to-bacteroidetes ratio in the gut microbiota [ 51 ]. Polyphenols are also associated with preventing gut dysbiosis, caused by an imbalance of the gut microbiota [ 38 , 46 ]. In addition, gut bacteria produce short-chain fatty acids through the fermentation of dietary fibre and resistant starch, which have a range of health benefits, such as providing energy to intestinal epithelial cells, reducing inflammation, aiding mineral absorption and maintaining intestinal and immune homeostasis [ 45 ]. , 47 ].
According to Loo et al. [44] quercetin inhibits the growth of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhimurium and Lactobacillus rhamnosus with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) ranging from 62.5 to 250 g ml-1, however it appears to inhibit the growth of Bacteroides galacturonicus, Enterococus caccae, Lactobacillus spp., Ruminococcus gauvreauii, Bifidobacterium catenulatum and E. coli at doses of 4 to 50 g ml-1.
Other studies have shown MIC values of hydroxycinnamic acids (HCA) ranging from 125 to 1000 µg ml-1 for strains of S. aureus, E. coli, S. typhimurium and L. rhamnosus [44]. It has also been reported that HCA on GM increases the growth of lactic acid bacteria in the human gut as a result of a high dose of CGA. At the same time, it has been proven that the positive effect on the adhesion of probiotic bacteria such as L. acidophilus is due to the presence of CA [39].
As can be seen, numerous studies have shown that PC modulates the gut microbial community through prebiotic action or antimicrobial action against pathogenic intestinal bacteria [52].
As a result, in recent years there has been an increase in the number of studies on the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-adipogenic, anti-diabetic, cardioprotective, neuroprotective and anti-cancer effects of phenol-rich substances through interaction with GM [53]. However, there is almost no published research on the effect of YM and its PC on human GM, and this is certainly an important topic that should be studied further. On the other hand, various sources of PC have already been evaluated for their beneficial effects on human GM.
For example, Gil-Sánchez et al. [54] studied grape pomace, a winemaking product rich in fibre and PC, two food components whose bioavailability involves the microflora. In this study, the in vitro colonic digestion of grape pomace extracts was analysed for the first time. Based on the release of the main bioavailable phenolic metabolites of the grape pomace extract, various benzoic, phenylacetic and phenylpropionic acids were identified. A significant increase in the amount of acetic, propionic and butyric acid was observed after enhanced feeding, indicating microbial fermentation activity [54]. Moreover, most bacterial classes increased during continuous feeding, with the largest increase in the Lactobacillus and Bacteroids groups.
Nash et al. [ 55 ] published a review of recent human studies on the effects of grape and red wine PC on GM. All studies confirmed the regulation of ingested PC by the gut microflora through an increase in the number of phenolic metabolites found in blood, urine, intestinal fluid and fecal fluids. According to the authors, consumption of PC derived from grapes and red wine can modulate GM and lead to a beneficial microbial ecology that improves human health. Furthermore, GM showed modulation of grape and red wine PC, suggesting an important bidirectional relationship [ 55 ].
Ramírez-Pérez et al. [ 56 ] also demonstrated a bidirectional interaction, in which host metabolism can be influenced both by microbial modifications of bile acids, either through altering bile acid receptor signaling, and by the composition of the microflora. It is becoming increasingly clear that an individual’s GM can determine the health effects of PC and several other bioactive compounds.
Despite all these demonstrated benefits for GM regulation, the observed limitation in animals’ absorption of key PC components requires research aimed at improving the bioavailability of bioactive compounds derived from plant sources [ 9 ].
Approaches to increasing the bioavailability of phenolic compounds
Studies of the digestive processes of YM and other plants have shown a modification in the number of bioactive compounds after passing through several compartments of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) as a result of enzymatic actions, GM metabolic activity and pH changes [ 57 ]. Temperature and digestion length can also affect the final qualitative and quantitative outcome. For example, only one-third of the total amount of CGA is absorbed in the small intestine, while two-thirds reach the colon, where they can be metabolized by the microflora [ 58 ].
In line with this finding, Gómez-Juaristi et al. [ 59 ] evaluated the bioavailability of YM PC in healthy humans. They found that in addition to unmetabolized caffeoyl-, feruloyl- and p – coumaroylquinic acids, more than 34 metabolites with rapid onset and clearance in plasma were discovered, suggesting absorption in the small intestine. These chemicals accounted for 13.1% of the metabolites found in urine. In addition to feruloylglycine, delayed absorption of dihydrocaffeic, dihydroferulic and dihydrocoumaric acids and their phase II metabolites, accounting for 81.0% of excreted metabolites, revealed bacterial origin and intestinal absorption, suggesting that YM PC are strongly metabolized, mainly by the microflora.
Moreover, GM not only appears to be responsible for most of the metabolism of PC, but can also be modified through specific interventions to favorably influence human metabolism. Regardless, GM must first be maintained in order to properly perform its main function. In this regard, pre- and probiotics can play an important role.
Prebiotics such as inulin, fructooligosaccharides and galactooligosaccharides have been shown to improve gut permeability, reduce inflammation and improve insulin control in vivo [ 60 ].
Probiotics such as Lactobacillus spp. and Bifidobacterium spp. are equally beneficial to human health, even when used alone. However, combinations of pre- and probiotics suggest a better potential for GM and host health than single intake, as the combination of both components stimulates the growth and survival of bacteria in the digestive tract [ 61 ].
Moreover, isolated nutrients are rarely consumed, and for this reason, in recent years science has been evaluating the ability of diet and dietary patterns to adapt GM to pathological conditions. It appears that long-term adherence to a high-fibre diet, enriched with phenolic compounds and based on plant protein, may bring benefits in terms of GM composition, as well as alleviate symptoms of obesity and metabolic syndrome [ 41 ].
Diet has been shown to be the main predictor of GM composition. Various degrees of in vivo scientific evidence confirm that nutrition is a key element in GM modulation, as certain foods, bioactive chemicals and dietary patterns can influence health outcomes through their effect on GM. In this context, it is crucial to understand how specific nutrients, such as PC, may act in GM modulation in order to explain their action and impact on the human body. The discovery that food can have a significant impact on host-microbe interactions suggests that future treatment techniques should aim to modify GM and reduce dysbiosis caused by nutrition-related disorders [ 41 ].
Currently, dietary polyphenols are being used as a new therapy in the prevention of many diseases. For example, the relationship between the gut microbiome and polyphenols has been linked to improvement of depression symptoms, alleviation of cognitive dysfunction, improved blood flow and vasodilation in the cerebrovascular circulation, and acting as neuronal protection due to reduced nerve inflammation [ 62 , 63 ], with an immunomodulatory effect [ 40 ]. Moreover, dietary polyphenols may help prevent inflammatory processes, cardiovascular disease, obesity, cancer and type 2 diabetes [ 37 , 46 ]. These properties have also been noted for yerba mate, as yerba mate tea is recommended as a dietary therapy [5 , 33 ].
It is important to promote research focused on metagenomics, transcriptomics and proteomics, which helps us understand the interactions between dietary polyphenols and gut microflora, in order to identify the genes and microorganisms involved in the metabolism of these polyphenols, and thus clarify how the dose and polyphenolic compounds from yerba mate extract affect the gut microbiome and immune system [ 37 ].
Besides maintaining GM, the extraction method used to obtain PC elements from plant sources must be efficient and yield a large amount of compounds in order to improve the absorption of PC by the human digestive tract.
It is already known that different extraction conditions, such as time, temperature, type of solvent and concentration, can affect the composition of PC. Conventional methods of extracting bioactive compounds can be an alternative for increasing their bioavailability and include solvent maceration, direct boiling, distillation, compression, etc. [ 64 ], although such processes are time-consuming and can lead to the degradation of thermolabile compounds. Traditional methods, such as Soxhlet extraction and maceration, have numerous drawbacks, including the use of large amounts of organic solvents, which can be toxic as well as harmful to the environment, in addition to high energy consumption and time requirements [ 65 ].
The stability of bioactive compounds derived from natural sources is a key factor in their effective integration into various food systems. In this context, methods such as microwave-assisted extraction have emerged as an alternative for reducing the exposure time of bioactive compounds to high temperatures, energy costs and environmental degradation [ 65 ]. Ultrasound-assisted extraction is another option for obtaining bioactive compounds, using acoustic energy to improve the release and diffusion of target compounds from several matrices [ 66 ].
Since natural antioxidants are significantly sensitive to environmental effects, several methods can also be used to protect them from the surrounding environment in order to improve their effectiveness. The latest techniques, such as encapsulation, can be valuable options for this purpose. The encapsulation process packs molecules using an encapsulating material to protect the internal compounds and their functionality. Protective delivery carriers can also enable targeted release in tissues such as the small intestine, in addition to surrounding, protecting and transporting the desired bioactive molecules to the circulatory system [ 67 ].
In particular, in the pharmaceutical and nutritional domains, a growing trend is the use of encapsulated micro- and nanoparticles for effective oral delivery of biomolecules. Modern bioactive carriers, which mainly use natural dietary macromolecules as functional materials, aim to increase the absorption of bioactive components, physicochemical stability and bioavailability in several ways, without posing a threat to safety or health [ 68 ]. The successful application of this bioengineering of food compound carriers may bring benefits to human health beyond basic nutrition.
Encapsulation can also serve as an alternative to altering certain product characteristics, improving its appearance, or avoiding unpleasant interactions with the carrier’s food matrix [ 67 ]. Phenols with greater water solubility can be more easily released from the food matrix, dissolved in digestive juice and absorbed by the small intestine mucosa during digestion. On the other hand, hydrophobic molecules more often interact with other food components, such as fibre and lipids, delaying or reducing absorption [ 69 ]. Several wall materials, such as fibres, proteins and gums, can be used for food encapsulation. However, depending on the structure and characteristics of each encapsulating agent, the use of multiple agents may result in different physical characteristics [70 ].
Several biocompatible and biodegradable polysaccharides have been designed in the form of micro or nanoparticles to address PC absorption issues. Cyclodextrins, cyclic oligosaccharides with a hydrophilic outer surface and a lipophilic inner chamber, are a viable choice. Similarly, chitosan is another type of positively charged polysaccharide, often used to capture hydrophilic molecules. Due to interactions with the negatively charged mucus layer, chitosan-based particles promote absorption, facilitating passage through tight junctions [ 71 ].
Furthermore, dietary proteins such as β-lactoglobulin, β-casein, gelatin and isolated soy protein are attractive as macronutrients and functional ingredients, making them suitable carrier materials for the efficient transport of nutraceuticals. As can be seen, through the use of electrostatic interactions, proteins and polysaccharides can be designed to produce self-assembling particles [ 68 ].
In fact, encapsulated PC compounds have already shown higher bioavailability and stability [ 72 ]. According to Berté et al. [ 73 ], spray-dried YM extract contained higher amounts of phenolic acids compared to the leaves. Becker et al. [ 74 ] evaluated the antioxidant capacity and clinical effects of spray-dried YM extract capsules in healthy individuals. Consumption of the capsules increased antioxidant biomarkers while reducing lipid peroxidation both in the short and long term.
Closing remarks
Ilex paraguariensis has been shown to have several health benefits. Although many of these benefits have not yet been fully established, numerous studies have shown that the plant has the potential to be a promising functional food, mainly due to its phenolic component. Since the compound’s relationship with GM is essential for PC metabolism, a better understanding of the final fraction of ingested YM compounds and how they act in the human body is needed.
In this context, authors should exercise caution in light of the abundance of repetitive and misleading information, as multiple weak studies can undermine solid work. On the other hand, inter-individual variability appears within rigorous studies, such as different reactions to computer use depending on the person. Before precise conclusions can be drawn, it is necessary to identify the likely interrelated elements surrounding the PC and GM interaction in human health. Moreover, since the bioavailability and effects of PC are often questioned, it is extremely important to qualify different YM products in terms of PC, as well as to understand how different extraction methods and modes of consumption affect the degree of phenol migration into water, as well as absorption by the human body.
Given that natural antioxidants are highly sensitive, several methods can also be used to protect them from the surrounding environment in order to improve their effectiveness. Recent techniques, such as encapsulation, can be valuable options for this purpose. Protective or encapsulated delivery carriers can also enable targeted release in tissues such as the small intestine, in addition to surrounding, protecting and transporting desired bioactive molecules into the circulatory system [ 67 ].
The content on this page comes from National Library of Medicine, and has been translated into Polish.
Link to source – https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9516501/
